Foreword
WASWAC was founded in Hawaii, the USA in
January 1983. WASWAC has dedicated to promote the protection and wise use of
soil and water resources, made significant contribution in the field of
productive and sustainable land use, in the past 40 years. How to adapt the
changing world, to serve our members better in the future is one of the challenges
we are facing.
This issue of Hot News (http://www.waswac.org.cn/waswac/rootfiles/2023/06/07/1686793533065162-1686793533099861.pdf) published José L. Rubio’s
opinion article, the advancement of knowledge and the future of
scientific soil protection associations. As a deputy president of WASWAC,
he thought deeply and systematically about the development of the associations
related to soil conservation. He proposed the key trends to shape the future of
scientific associations and the initiatives to encourage the participation of
young scientists. He shows the way of our work. Please email to the secretariat
if you have any comments and suggestion to WASWAC development.
Duihu Ning
President of the WASWAC
The advancement of knowledge and the future of scientific soil protection
associations
By José L. Rubio
Deputy
president WASWAC,
Co–founder and Ex-president of European Society for Soil
Conservation,
Ex-Director of Desertification Research Centre-CIDE, Valencia,
Spain
jose.l.rubio@uv.es
Creativity, progress and social
environment
Throughout human history, discovery and
creativity have always been considered mysterious processes, and I would dare say
that, in part, they still are. In other times, creativity was thought to be
something alien to the human being, something external that came from the
inspiration of the "muses" or external higher powers. Something that
came from where was not well known but that was alien to the individual. Today
we know that it is a cognitive activity that, like other mental functions, is
developed by our neural system. We have gone from considering it as something
like a favor of the gods to a function of our neurons (Lehrer,2012). But we are
still at the beginning of understanding the fascinating process of discovery,
creativity or progress in new technologies and for the moment, in its essence,
the fact of finding the solution to the problem posed or doing something differently,
remains with us with certain mystery and surrounded by false myths.
In fact, and for a long time, discovery has
been considered as something inscrutable, as a innate quality that only reached
a few lucky ones. However, human beings follow common behavior patterns set by
our genetic system as a species. Within these common patterns, some individuals
achieve advances and developments that are outside the general pattern and,
furthermore, this situation can be shared by other individuals with whom there
is no contact of any kind. In different individuals, or groups, a situation of
experience, knowledge and attraction to the unknown or not experienced is
reached, in which the triggering of discovery can arise almost inevitably. But
this situation prior to discovery derives from and is a consequence of
accumulated prior knowledge. In this sense, Newton's phrase: "If I have
seen further, it is because I have stood on the shoulders of giants",
perfectly illustrates this situation. By the way, it is a metaphor that is
attributed to Newton but that, apparently, he was not, far from it, the first
to use it.
Thus, a climax situation can be reached
whose next step is a eureka that previously remained hidden. And once this
climax or momentum has been reached, if one researcher does not make the
discovery, it is very likely that another will. However, it does not
necessarily follow from this level of climax that discovery is inevitable.
Nature does not easily reveal its secrets. Most of the inventions have a long
and slow cumulative process behind them that can last decades and in which
advances have progressively been produced in different necessary and
complementary aspects, which finally create the momentum for the individual, or
groups, to produce the discovery. It could be said that progress occurs only
when that "moment" arrives. However, at the individual level and
prior to discovery, certain conditions are necessary. In the first place, a
previous stage of saturation of knowledge on the subject is necessary.
Observation skills and mental disposition are also necessary for the proper
evaluation of facts, data and observations. Somehow, the human mind only sees
the things it is prepared to see. Hence the timely phrase of Louis Pasteur in
which he warns that "chance favors the prepared spirit." Sometimes,
and if these previous aspects have occurred, the phenomenon of serendipity can
arise, when we have relaxed and mentally distanced ourselves from the subject.
But for the discovery or advance to occur
and for it to be implemented, other conditions external to the researcher are
also necessary, such as collaboration between individuals and the social and
economic capacity of their environment to echo the discovery and develop it.
Also the cultural and institutional context that can appreciate the interest of
its application. Of course, and as in everything, luck and the confluence of
favorable situations can be important factors. It is in these external and
complementary circumstances to the advancement of knowledge that associations
can carry out crucial work. One of their priorities should be to promote the
factors that stimulate creativity and collaboration and exchange of knowledge
between human beings. Humanity has always been facing obstacles to overcome and
unravel to improve their living conditions. This will not change in the future
and basically, even with the irruption of new advanced technologies, it will
always be in the still mysterious recesses of the human brain that these
advances will take place.
What we do know for sure is that
collaboration and the right social environment are essential for the
advancement of knowledge and progress. In this sense, scientific associations
favor collaboration between individuals and groups and contribute to the exchange
of ideas and knowledge that are essential for progress. Additionally,
collaboration can allow people to work together on projects that are too large
or complex for one person to tackle.
On the other hand, the appropriate social
environment is also an important factor in the advancement of knowledge and
progress. A climate for science is necessary and creating it should be a
priority for scientific associations. This positive and stimulating environment
can encourage creativity and innovation by providing a safe and welcoming space
for exploring new ideas. Additionally, a collaborative environment that values
learning and curiosity can motivate people to seek new knowledge and share
their findings with others.
For all these reasons, the role of society and
the social environment in the advancement of scientific knowledge and discovery
is fundamental, since science does not exist in an isolated vacuum, but is
closely related to the society in which it is inserted. Scientific advances
require a favorable climate or social environment. Culture, beliefs, politics,
and social structures can influence scientific inquiry and how scientific
knowledge is used.
Society can influence scientific education
and the scientific literacy of the population. Science education can help
individuals understand scientific concepts, which in turn can influence how
science is perceived and scientific knowledge is used. It can also help foster
a culture of inquiry and motivate people to seek answers to important
questions.
In summary, society and the social
environment can influence the advancement of scientific knowledge and
discovery, be it in the choice of research areas, in the way in which research
is carried out, in how the results are used, and in education and scientific literacy
of the population. Therefore, it is very important to foster a society that
values scientific research and supports the development of a strong scientific
culture.
For this reason, the organized
collaboration promoted by scientific societies and associations and their
influence in creating an adequate social environment are essential for the
advancement of knowledge and progress. When collaboration is encouraged and a
social environment that values learning and curiosity is created, people can
work together to develop new ideas and solutions that can lead to important
advances in different areas of life.
When all these circumstances, individual
and social, occur, the invention can take place. What Henry James called “guess
the invisible from the visible” or, according to Martin Heidegger, the
“disclosure process” can occur. And this process or epiphany takes place in our
neural network. No one knows how yet. It is not yet known how this flash of
seconds duration can be produced, in which the understanding of the problem and
its possible solution suddenly appear. According to neurological studies
(Lehrer 2012), the gamma wave flash originates from a convolution of the right
superior temporal lobe. And once it has happened, the solution to the problem
is obvious. How had it not occurred to me before? Now, as we have indicated, we
must be prepared to be able to realize that tenuous and rapid burst of neuronal
current in which the solution appears fleetingly. An important personal
preparation and adequate social conditions are required. If these occur, we
will be able to become aware of that streak of faint neural waves in which the
answer to the problem or the long-sought invention travels. It is the eureka
that only for tenths of a second our synapses send us. In short, a new idea or
solution is a neural pattern that suddenly changes and works in a new pattern
that had not previously occurred before.
The influence of the social environment in
the process of creativity and innovation in the advancement of knowledge is
also demonstrated in the phenomenon of simultaneity reached by individuals or
research groups working independently and without any prior contact. (Merton,
1973, Rubio, 2017).
This pattern of simultaneity in discovery
can also be observed in the developments of cultures and civilizations over
time in which coeval and independent discoveries and advances have occurred.
Perhaps one of the most important has been that of agriculture, which arises
almost synchronously in areas so far apart and evidently without absolute
contact between them, such as the Fertile Crescent-Mesopotamia, China,
Mesoamerica and India. In this same sense, isolated societies in different
corners of the world progressed and discovered advances that were also achieved
by distant civilizations. These advances occurred not only in agriculture, but
in an enormous variety of subjects such as writing, the calendar, mathematics,
architecture, social organization, the use of water, art, the manufacture of
tools and utensils, domestication of animals...
Why does this situation occur? Researchers
on the subject consider that more than unique cases, they should be considered
as a common guideline in science and in the pattern of human progress (Kuhn,
1962). Somehow a cumulative process of experiences, observations and progress
is taking place, many times based on the common practice of trial and error. A
certain climax of time or accumulated knowledge is created that at a given
moment generates the irruption of discovery. But this process has multiple
facets and implications.
This process can occur in remote minds
working independently on the same problem. And it can also occur in scientific
or social groups working together. In fact, today it is recognized that the
great scientific contributions arise from the collaboration of groups, and each
time these collaborations increase their international and multidisciplinary
character. There is a clear trend towards collaboration and teamwork in the
development of science. The increasing pattern of awarding Nobel Prizes to
groups of scientists rather than to individual researchers is significant.
There are practical reasons such as the need for different specialists covering
a scientific field and the need to use expensive and sophisticated research
infrastructures.
Scientific associations and the
advancement of knowledge
Scientific associations are organizations
that bring together individuals with a common interest in a particular field of
science or technology. These associations are typically membership-based, and
they serve as platforms for networking, knowledge sharing, and professional
development. The history of scientific associations dates back several
centuries and has played a significant role in advancing human knowledge and
promoting scientific progress.
The first scientific association, as we
know them today, is considered to be the Royal Society of London, that was
founded in 1660 by a group of scientists who sought to promote
"experimental philosophy." Through their activities and by publishing
some of the most important scientific papers, including those of Isaac Newton,
the society played a significant role in the development of modern science, However,
there are some illustrious precedents in the "academies" and study
centers of Greco-Latin studies and later, the Muslim ones. We must also mention
in China, the Sinarum Academy, founded in 1603, which among other topics was
dedicated to the study of geography.
In the centuries that followed, scientific
associations emerged in many other countries, including the United States,
France, Germany, Spain and Japan. These organizations played a critical role in
advancing scientific knowledge by providing platforms for the exchange of
ideas, the publication of research findings, and the development of scientific
disciplines.
Scientific associations have also played a
vital role in promoting education and professional development in science and
technology. Many associations offer training programs, workshops, and
conferences that allow members to stay up-to-date on the latest developments in
their fields and to network with other professionals.
One of the key benefits of scientific
associations is their ability to facilitate collaboration among researchers and
institutions. Through collaborations and partnerships, scientists can work
together on complex scientific challenges that would be difficult to solve
alone. Scientific associations also facilitate the sharing of resources, such
as equipment and data, which can be critical to advancing scientific knowledge.
Another important benefit of scientific
associations is their ability to advocate for scientific research and funding.
By representing the interests of their members and promoting the importance of
science to society, these associations can influence public policy and funding
decisions that affect scientific research.
Scientific associations contribute to the
advancement of knowledge and strengthen connections and social well-being. This
is even more relevant in times of uncertainty and global change. The
associations reinforce the activities of search for solutions, improvement of
knowledge, innovation, education-awareness, technological developments and
social connections that enrich and enhance the hope of a better future.
Scientific associations and soil
protection
Soil is one of the most important natural
resources that is essential for the survival of all living organisms on Earth.
It is the foundation of the food we eat and supports the growth of all
vegetation. It also acts as a filter for pollutants, helps regulate the Earth's
climate, and plays a critical role in the water cycle. Despite its importance,
soil is often taken for granted and subjected to degradation through human
activities such as deforestation, unsustainable agriculture, urbanization, and
mining. This has led to a growing concern about the state of global soils and
the need for their protection and conservation.
Scientific associations related to the
protection and conservation of global soils have been playing a crucial role in
advancing our understanding of soil and its importance to human and
environmental well-being. These associations bring together scientists,
researchers, land users, policymakers, and other stakeholders to promote
scientific research, education, and outreach on soil-related issues. They also
help to facilitate the exchange of knowledge and best practices on soil
conservation and management
If their role has been important in the
past, it will most likely be even more so in the future. A future that includes
challenges such as the climate emergency, land degradation, biodiversity loss,
extreme weather events, loss of agricultural land, loss of water resources,
loss of food and famines, pandemics, sea level rise and floods, instability
social and forced migrations. All these challenges are directly or indirectly
related to the good or bad management of soil and water resources.
As our knowledge expands, science becomes
increasingly collaborative. Practitioners from increasingly distant disciplines
are coming together, recognizing the complexity of some of the most important
problems we face; science is at the heart of the solutions. The COVID-19
pandemic offers a perfect illustration of a complex crisis that has brought
together molecular biologists, epidemiologists, physicians, social scientists,
engineers, materials scientists, and many others.
Scientific associations dedicated to soil
study and conservation are relatively recent, and the first scientific
associations specifically dedicated to soil protection and conservation were
founded in the 20th century.
One of the first scientific associations to
include aspects dedicated to soil protection was the International Union of
Soil Sciences (IUSS), founded in 1924 in Rome as the International Society of
Soil Science (ISSS). The IUSS is a non-governmental organization dedicated to
fostering research and teaching in soil science, as well as promoting the
protection and sustainable management of soil worldwide.
The International Union of Soil Sciences
(IUSS) was founded as the International Society of Soil Science (ISSS) on 19th
May 1924 in Rome, Italy. The IUSS has been a scientific union member of ICSU
(International Council for Science) since 1993. The objectives of the IUSS are
to foster all branches of the soil sciences and their applications and to give
support to soil scientists in the pursuit of their activities. In addition, the
IUSS aims to put soils and soil science on the global agenda and stablishing
cooperation with other related organizations and represents Soil Science to a
wide external audience.
Other early associations dedicated to
promoting the study of soil and its proper use were the German Soil Science
Society (Deutsche Bodenkundliche Gesellschaft) and the Soil Science Society of
the United States (Soil Science Society of America).
The German Society for Soil Science was
founded in 1926, and since then it has been one of the most important
associations in the field of soil science in Europe. This society aims to
promote research, teaching and dissemination of soil science in Germany and
internationally.
The Soil Science Society of America (SSSA)
was founded in 1936, and since then has been a leading society promoting soil
and water conservation research, education, and practice in the United States
and also providing information about soils in relation to crop production,
environmental quality, forestry, ecosystem sustainability, and across other
related scientific aspects.
The Spanish Soil Science Society (SECS) was
founded in 1947 and is dedicated to promoting, disseminating and preserving the
study, knowledge, research and protection of the soil. Today there are soil
science societies in practically all European countries, in America, Asia, in
many African countries and also in Australia.
In addition, there are currently many other
scientific associations worldwide that work focused on the protection and
conservation of the soil, among others the World Association of Soil and Water
Conservation (WASWAC) which aims to promote the research, teaching and practice
of soil and water conservation globally. WASWAC seeks to foster collaboration
and knowledge sharing among scientists, professionals, and citizens interested
in soil and water conservation, and works closely with other international
organizations concerned with environmental conservation.
WASWAC as a worldwide academic society, was
established in the USA in January 1983. The WASWAC secretariat, initially
located at the Soil and Water Conservation Society (SWCS), Iowa, USA, was moved
on April 2003 to the International Center for Research and Training on
Seabuckthorn (ICRTS), Beijing, China, and from October 2010 to the
International Research and Training Center on Erosion and Sedimentation
(IRTCES), also in Beijing. Since its founding, the WASWAC has devoted itself to
research and communication to solve scientific and technical problems related
to soil and water conservation worldwide.
The aim of WASWAC is to promote the wise
use of management practices that will improve and safeguard the quality of land
and water resources so that they continue to meet the needs of agriculture,
society and nature. The vision of WASWAC is a world in which all soil and water
resources are used in a productive, sustainable and ecologically sound manner.
Other associations for soil protection are,
the European Society for Soil Conservation (ESSC) which was founded on 1988 to
promote soundly based policies of soil conservation in its broadest sense
throughout the countries of Europe by supporting research on soil
degradation, soil erosion and soil conservation, providing a network for the
exchange of knowledge about soil degradation processes and soil conservation
research and practices and producing publications about major questions of soil
conservation.
The Global Soil Biodiversity Initiative-
GSBI, was founded in 2011 seeking to create a global collaboration of scientists
to informing the public and to creating a platform for promoting the
translation of expert knowledge on soil biodiversity into environmental policy
to enhancement of ecosystem services such as water quality, food production,
soil fertility, and biocontrol of human and animal diseases.
Others are: The International Soil Conservation
Organization (ISCO), International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural
Resources, Nucleo Ricerca Desertificazione- Centre NRD Uniss, International
Erosion Control Association- IECA, Global Network of Dryland Research Institutes
–GNDRI, International Commission of Agricultural and Biosystems Engineering
–CIGR and Commission on Land Degradation and Desertification-COMLAND
The future
The future of scientific associations
related to the protection and conservation of global soils is promising and
demanding. As the world continues to face challenges related to climate change,
food security, environmental degradation, population increase, new approaches
to land use and nature, social demands and scarcity of water resources, the
role of these associations will become even more critical. This future will
include rapid and profound changes that will require facing a demanding horizon
of new designs, knowledge, innovations and approaches in which scientific
associations will have both to adapt and have the opportunity to contribute to
a better future.
Being aware of the difficulty of making
future prospects, some of the key trends that are likely to shape the future of
scientific associations related to soil conservation can be mentioned. Among
others:
1)Collaboration and Partnership: Scientific
associations will need to work collaboratively and form partnerships with other
organizations to address soil-related challenges. This will require them to
engage with stakeholders from different sectors, including academia,
governments, NGOs, businesses, and local communities.
2)Technology and Innovation: Advances in
technology and innovation will play an increasingly important role in soil
conservation. Scientific associations will need to embrace new technologies and
incorporate them into their research and outreach activities. This could include
the use of advanced computer technologies as Machine Learning and Artificial
Intelligence, Internet of Things, Big Data Analytics, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles
(UAVs, drones), Environmental Modelling, Environmental Data Visualization (with
virtual reality), precision agriculture, digital soil mapping, among others.
3)Policy and Advocacy: Scientific
associations will need to continue to engage in policy and advocacy work to
promote soil conservation at the national and international levels. This will
involve working with policymakers and other stakeholders to develop and
implement policies that support soil conservation and management.
4)Education and Outreach: Scientific
associations will need to continue to educate and raise awareness about the
importance of soil conservation and management. This includes working with
schools, universities, and local communities to promote soil health and
sustainability.
5)Interdisciplinary Research: Soil
conservation is a complex and multifaceted issue that requires an
interdisciplinary approach. Scientific associations will need to continue to
promote interdisciplinary research and collaboration across different fields of
study, including soil science, ecology, agronomy, forestry, water management,
land use planning and environmental science.
6)Global Collaboration: Soil conservation
is a global issue that requires global collaboration. Scientific associations
will need to work together across national borders to address soil-related
challenges and share best practices.
Young researchers
The role of young researchers can be very
important in various aspects including being the support for the continuity and
future projection of associations. In this sense, it will be very significant
to encourage the participation of young scientists, due to their potential to
contribute fresh and innovative ideas, use of new technologies and new
approaches and consequently contribute to the advancement of scientific
knowledge. As examples of initiatives that can stimulate young scientists to
develop their work potential and increase their participation, the following
can be considered:
1) Offer leadership opportunities:
Scientific associations can offer leadership opportunities to young scientists,
such as the possibility of leading working groups or committees within the
association. This will allow them to develop leadership skills and work on
projects that may be beneficial to their scientific career.
2) Organize events and activities for young
scientists: Associations can organize events and activities specifically
designed for young researchers, such as workshops, seminars and conferences.
These events can provide networking, learning and stimulation opportunities. The
Training Workshops and the International Youth Forum are two good examples of
initiatives organized by WASWAC in this direction.
3)Provide Mentoring Opportunities:
Mentoring opportunities can be provided to youth, either through formal
programs or through the assignment of informal mentors. This can be especially
beneficial for those who are just starting their careers and looking for
guidance and support.
4) Encourage collaboration: Associations
can encourage collaboration between young scientists and other more experienced
scientists. This can be mutually beneficial, as young people can learn from the
experience of their more experienced colleagues, and more experienced ones can
benefit from the fresh ideas and innovative perspectives of young people.
5) Provide resources and support:
Associations can provide resources and support to youth, such as scholarships,
funding programs, and access to equipment and labs. This can be especially
beneficial for young people with limited resources and who need additional
support to carry out their research.
6) Use social networks and other
technological tools: Associations can use social networks and other
technological tools to connect and keep them informed about the latest news and
events of the association. This can help young people feel more involved in the
association and increase their participation.
It is a recognized fact that adequately
promoting the participation of young people in scientific associations is
desirable for the future of science. The strategies mentioned above can be
useful to stimulate young people participation. It is important that
associations recognize the value of young people and actively work to involve
and support them in their scientific career.
Final comments
Throughout the previous paragraphs some of
the important advantages of associations have been mentioned, not only for the
development of knowledge in general, but also in the specific aspect of each
associate who aspires to improve their level of knowledge, their professional
development, their commitment to a scientific subject, their sense of
contribution and their satisfaction in achieving improvement objectives at both
a scientific and social level. These are aspects to be taken into account and
promoted by the boards of directors of all associations.
Associations arise in predisposed societies
and are the result of collaboration. They arise in social environments that
foster a favorable climax for the advancement of knowledge and for scientific
discovery.
The social environment can also influence
the motivation and creativity of scientists. For example, an environment that
encourages collaboration and the exchange of ideas can stimulate creativity and
innovation, while an environment that discourages experimentation and risk can
limit scientific progress. An important activity of the associations would therefore
be to promote a society favorable to scientific development by making society
aware of the advantages that it can obtain with the enhancement of scientific
knowledge and with its application to the improvement of living conditions.
Individually and as groups, we will always
need to broaden and improve our knowledge in practically all aspects of the
natural world in which we are immersed, in its functioning and in its forms of
life, including soils as a cornerstone of terrestrial ecosystem. And obviously,
also in the technological aspects that can facilitate a fuller and more
satisfactory existence.
Therefore, the future of scientific
associations related to the protection and conservation of global soils looks
bright. These associations most probably will continue to play a critical role
in advancing our understanding of soil functioning and services and in
promoting strategies and solutions for the appropriate use and protection of
the land. By embracing collaboration, technology, policy, education, and
interdisciplinary research, they will help to ensure the health and
sustainability of our planet's soils for generations to come.
Despite these opportunities, there are also
challenges that scientific societies will need to overcome in order to effectively
promote soil protection and conservation. One of the biggest challenges is the
lack of public awareness and engagement around soil health issues. Soil is
often seen as a "hidden" resource that is not well understood by the
general public, which can make it difficult to build public support for soil
protection measures. Scientific associations can help to address this challenge
by promoting public education and awareness campaigns that highlight the
importance of soil health and the threats facing global soils. The social
appreciation for soil perhaps will be needed to revise and improve our
communication strategies.
Despite this inconvenience, during the last
third of the last century, the traditional format of associations, which still
persists, was able to create a stimulating environment of collaboration,
exchange, and motivation that made it very gratifying to be part of these
groups of professionals associated and auto stimulated by a common goal. It was
a kind of golden age for the associations, which, however in last two decades
has lost part of its vigor and some of them are even losing members and
relevance in achieving their objectives. On the global political agenda, the
current apparent greater interest in soil resources has not yet been translated
into approaches and actions that can significantly change the current situation
and prospects of the planet's soils.
However, in a world that is constantly
changing and at an increasingly rapid speed, scientific associations on soil
protection will always have many new challenging and stimulating fronts for
adaptation, improvement and contribution. As mentioned, one important input
could be foster collaboration as platforms that facilitate contact and personal
encouragement, inside and outside the association. These increased
possibilities for personal contacts significantly contribute to the exchange of
information and knowledge and to creating a favorable environment for
scientific development, innovation, technological progress and problem solving.
These contacts will increase with new forms of communication that will develop
under the potential of information technologies. But given the tremendous
potential of these online technologies, association boards will do well to
devise new forms of collaboration and participation that offer added value and
benefits to potential new members to join.
Although we are immersed in a rapidly
changing world, and in recent decades we have seen difficulties in the
appreciation of scientific associations, I do not believe that their potential
for social and scientific contribution is threatened and therefore they could
lose importance. I don't think they will disappear, although the current
formats may disappear. Surely they will be constantly changing and adapting to
the new conditions that are emerging.
In general, the future of scientific
associations will depend on their ability to adapt to changes in the scientific
and technological environment, as well as their ability to address the needs of
their members. Those associations that can stay relevant, foster collaboration
and participation of young scientists, and take advantage of new technologies
are likely to thrive and play a crucial role in advancing science and research
in the future and, in our case, in the future protection of soil resources.
A relevant factor will derive from
the need of the human being to tend to unite to cooperate and improve their
living conditions. It is an innate social attitude. We will always have to join
forces, support each other intellectually and pollinate each other
intellectually to find solutions and avoid problems. This is an inherent
characteristic of the human being.
And this shared intellectual concern is the
guarantee that there will always be progress and there will always be
scientific associations to continue supporting that progress.
References
Kuhn, T. S. 1962 The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions. University of Chicago Press.
Lehrer, J. 2012 Image. How Creativity
Works. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.
Merton, R. K. 1973 "Resistance to the
Systematic Study of Multiple Discoveries in Science", European Journal of
Sociology, 4:237–82, 1963. Reprinted in Robert K. Merton, The Sociology of
Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations, Chicago, University of
Chicago Press,1973 ( ttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries)
Rubio, J.L 2017 ?Porque dos o más científicos
sin conocer el trabajo de otros, dan a menudo simultáneamente con la misma teoría?,
en Ciencia, y además lo entiendo. Coord. Quintín Garrido. Creative Commons,
2017
